Table 2 Literature summary of the closed-loop intervention
Author (year) | After onset | Sample size | Type of intervention | Task | Number of sessions | CRT | Outcome measure of brain function | Outcome of motor function | Relationship between rs-FC and motor function |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rustamov N et al. (2023) [30] | 68.2 ± 78.2 months | 30 | EEG-based BCI | Imagine opening and closing their affected hand | 60 sessions (5sessions/week) 60 min | × | EEG | FMA, ARAT, Motricity Index, Gross Grasp, MAS | ・ FMA, ARAT and Motricity Index significant correlated with an increased coupling of theta and gamma frequencies in the motor regions |
Ma ZZ et al. (2023) [31] | 5.90 ± 2.99 months | 20 | EEG-based BCI | Imagine the state of the muscles as the right or left-hand stretches or contracts | 10 sessions (5sessions/week) 40 min | × | EEG, fMRI | FMA | ・ The assortativity of the dorsal attention network was positively correlated with the gain of the FMA-UE after treatment |
Rustamov N et al. (2022) [32] | 65.7 ± 15.5 months | 17 | EEG-based BCI | Imagine opening and closing their affected hand | 60 sessions (5sessions/week) 60 min | ◯ | EEG | FMA, AMAT, Motricity Index, MAS | ・ Theta–gamma coupling in bi-PMC was enhanced and was significantly correlated across BCI intervention sessions |
Yuan K et al. (2021) [33] | 3.98 ± 3.05 years | 14 | EEG-based BCI | Imagine either grasping or releasing a cup following the instruction displayed on the monitor | 20 sessions (3–5 sessions/week) 30 min | × | EEG + fMRI | FMA | ・ Information flow change from cont-BA6 to ispsi-PMC and SMA to ipsi-PMC significantly correlated with the FMA score change ・ rs-FC change between ipsi-PMC and cont-BA6 was positively correlated with the FMA |
Yuan K et al. (2020) [34] | 3.98 ± 3.05 years | 14 | EEG-based BCI | Imagine either grasping or releasing a cup following the instruction displayed on the monitor | 20 session (3–5 sessions/week) 30 min | × | fMRI | FMA | ・ Correlation analysis also showed that interhemispheric rs-FC change between Pre and Post sessions was significantly correlated with FMA score change ・ FMA score change was significantly correlated with rs-FC change between ipsi-PMC seed and the significant cluster in the cont-premotor area ・ FMA score change was significantly correlated with rs-FC change between ipsi-SMA seed and the significant cluster in bilateral SPL |
Wu Q et al. (2019) [35] | 2.11 ± 0.3 months | 25 | EEG-based BCI | Imagine grasping or releasing a cup with the affected hand, after an image-inverted video taken prior of the unaffected hand | 20 session (5 sessions/week) 60 min | ◯ | fMRI | FMA, ARAT, WMFT | ・ After comprehensive rehabilitation, including BCI training, increases in rs-FC between the left BA5 and right BA48 were positively correlated with clinical scores post training: upper limb FMA post score, ARAT post score, and WMFT post score |
Rathee D et al. (2019) [36] | 21.8 ± 1.1 months | 4 | EEG-based BCI | Presentation of a cue to perform either a left or right-hand grasp attempt | 12 sessions 30 min | × | MEG | ARAT, grip- strength | ・ The motor network involving the precentral gyrus (i.e., PMC), postcentral gyrus (i.e., S1), and SMA brain regions became stronger with upper limb functional recovery |
Várkuti B et al. (2013) [37] | 11.67 ± 13.51 months | 6 | EEG-based BCI | 8-Direction reaching with MANUS robot | 12 rehabilitation sessions in approximately 1 month | × | fMRI | FMA | ・ Increases in rs-FC of the SMA, bi-PMC, and parts of the visuospatial system with mostly association cortex regions and the cerebellum correlated with upper limb functional improvement |