Fig. 1

Experimental setup. a The forearm of the participant is strapped into an armrest and the hand is strapped to the handle of the robotic manipulator, requiring no hand force to hold the handle. b Visual feedback as presented to the participant. The circle and crosshairs are always visible. The yellow arrow is only visible during the active task and points up if the target torque is applied. c Close-up of the arm in the robotic manipulator. The wrist joint is aligned with the axis of the motor and is placed in the neutral angle, defined as 20° wrist flexion. d One period of the disturbance signal applied to the wrist (root-mean-square of 0.02 rad). Zero radians corresponds to the neutral angle of the wrist