Fig. 1

Overview of open-loop DBS (a) versus closed-loop DBS (b). In open-loop DBS, a neurologist manually adjusts the stimulation parameters every 3–12 months after DBS implantation. On the other hand, in closed-loop DBS, programming of the stimulation parameters is performed automatically based on the measured biomarker. c Demonstration of two different brain states and the action of open-loop and closed-loop DBS. When the brain enters a specific state, it remains in that state for a short or long time. Closed-loop DBS gets deactivated when the brain enters the normal state. Open-loop DBS continues the stimulation regardless of the brain state