Table 2 Studies included in the review, listed in the sequence they are referenced

Understanding variability in complex skill learning

Acquisition of novel and complex motor skills: stable solutions where intrinsic noise matters less.

Sternad D, Huber ME, Kuznetsov N

Unimpaired

From theoretical analysis to clinical assessment and intervention: Three interactive motor skills in a virtual environment.

Sternad D

Unimpaired, impaired

Exploiting the geometry of the solution space to reduce sensitivity to neuromotor noise.

Zhang Z, Guo D, Huber ME, Park SW, Sternad D

Unimpaired

State space analysis of timing: exploiting task redundancy to reduce sensitivity to timing.

Cohen RG, Sternad D

Bouncing a ball: tuning into dynamic stability.

Sternad D, Duarte M, Katsumata H, Schaal S

One-handed juggling: A dynamical approach to a rhythmic task

Schaal S, Atkeson CG, Sternad D

Passive stability and active control in a rhythmic task.

Wei K, Dijkstra TM, Sternad D

Human control of interactions with objects: Variability, stability and predictability.

Sternad D

The influence of movement initiation deficits on the quantification of retention in Parkinson’s disease.

Pendt LK, Maurer H, Müller H.

Impaired

Healthy and dystonic children compensate for changes in motor variability.

Chu VW, Sternad D, Sanger TD

Unimpaired, impaired

Inducing variability to enhance learning

Motor learning through induced variability at the task goal and execution redundancy levels.

Ranganathan R, Newell KM

Unimpaired

Emergent flexibility in motor learning.

Ranganathan R, Newell KM

Changing up the routine: intervention-induced variability in motor learning.

Ranganathan R, Newell KM

High variability impairs motor learning regardless of whether it affects task performance.

Cardis M, Casadio M, Ranganathan R.

Directionality in distribution and temporal structure of variability in skill acquisition.

Abe MO, Sternad D

Learning a throwing task is associated with differential changes in the use of motor abundance.

Yang JF, Scholz JP

Amplification of visual errors to stimulate learning

Using noise to shape motor learning.

Thorp EB, Kording KP, Mussa-Ivaldi FA

Neuromotor noise is malleable by amplifying perceived errors.

Hasson CJ, Zhang Z, Abe MO, Sternad D

Persistence of reduced neuromotor noise in long-term motor skill learning.

Huber ME, Kuznetsov N, Sternad D

Visual error augmentation enhances learning in three dimensions.

Sharp I, Huang F, Patton J

Visuomotor discordance during visually-guided hand movement in virtual reality modulates sensorimotor cortical activity in healthy and hemiparetic subjects.

Tunik E, Saleh S, Adamovich SV

Unimpaired, impaired

Visuomotor gain distortion alters online motor performance and enhances primary motor cortex excitability in patients with stroke.

Bagce HF, Saleh S, Adamovich SV, Tunik E

Visuomotor discordance in virtual reality: effects on online motor control.

Bagce HF, Saleh S, Adamovich SV, Tunik E

Effect of error augmentation on brain activation and motor learning of a complex locomotor task.

Marchal-Crespo L, Michels L, Jaeger L, Lopez-Oloriz J, Riener R

Unimpaired

Haptic error modulation outperforms visual error amplification when learning a modified gait pattern.

Marchal-Crespo L, Tsangaridis P, Obwegeser D, Maggioni S, Riener R

Manipulation of task physics for implicit guidance

Implicit guidance to stable performance in a rhythmic perceptual-motor skill.

Huber ME, Sternad D

Inconclusive evidence of skill transfer from virtual to real environments

Functional performance comparison between real and virtual tasks in older adults: A cross-sectional study.

Bezerra IMP, Crocetta TB, Massetti T, Silva TDD, Guarnieri R, Meira CM, et al.

Transfer of motor learning from virtual to natural environments in individuals with cerebral palsy.

de Mello Monteiro CB, Massetti T, da Silva TD, van der Kamp J, de Abreu LC, Leone C, et al.

Impaired

Motor learning from virtual reality to natural environments in individuals with Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Quadrado VH, Silva TDD, Favero FM, Tonks J, Massetti T, Monteiro CBM.

Achievement of virtual and real objects using a short-term motor learning protocol in people with Duchenne muscular dystrophy: A crossover randomized controlled trial.

Massetti T, Favero FM, Menezes LDC, Alvarez MPB, Crocetta TB, Guarnieri R, et al.

Transfer of a skilled motor learning task between virtual and conventional environments.

Anglin J, Saldana D, Schmiesing A, Liew S.

Unimpaired

Is children’s motor learning of a postural reaching task enhanced by practice in a virtual environment?

Levac DE, Jovanovic B.

Differences in movement kinematics between virtual and real environments

Upper limb kinematics in stroke and healthy controls using target-to-target task in virtual reality.

Hussain N, Alt Murphy M, Sunnerhagen KS

Unimpaired, impaired

Kinematics of reaching movements in a 2-D virtual environment in adults with and without stroke.

Liebermann DG, Berman S, Weiss PLT, Levin MF

Effects of real-world versus virtual environments on joint excursions in full-body reaching tasks.

Thomas JS, France CR, Leitkam ST, Applegate ME, Pidcoe PE, Walkowski S.

Unimpaired

Viewing medium affects arm motor performance in 3D virtual environments.

Subramanian SK, Levin MF.

Validation of reaching in a virtual environment in typically developing children and children with mild unilateral cerebral palsy.

Robert MT, Levin MF

Unimpaired, impaired

Comparison of grasping movements made by healthy subjects in a 3-dimensional immersive virtual versus physical environment.

Magdalon EC, Michaelsen SM, Quevedo AA, Levin MF

Unimpaired

Planning and adjustments for the control of reach extent in a virtual environment.

Stewart JC, Gordon J, Winstein CJ.

Quality of grasping and the role of haptics in a 3-D immersive virtual reality environment in individuals with stroke.

Levin MF, Magdalon EC, Michaelsen SM, Quevedo AAF

Unimpaired, impaired

Differences in learning mechanisms in virtual and real environments

Visuomotor adaptation in head-mounted virtual reality versus conventional training.

Anglin JM, Sugiyama T, Liew SL

Unimpaired

Enhancing task transfer through VE fidelity and dimensionality

Goal-related feedback guides motor exploration and redundancy resolution in human motor skill acquisition.

Rohde M, Narioka K, Steil JJ, Klein LK, Ernst MO

Learning redundant motor tasks with and without overlapping dimensions: facilitation and interference effects.

Ranganathan R, Wieser J, Mosier KM, Mussa-Ivaldi FA, Scheidt RA