Fig. 1

Experimental paradigm. A Experimental design. Participants trained on a visuomotor adaptation task in either B an HMD-VR environment or C a CS environment. D Visuomotor adaptation task with a 45° counterclockwise rotation E combined with dual-task probe. After finding the start circle, a blue target with numbers flanking the target would appear, and participants were asked to report where they planned to aim. Participants remained at the start circle for 3000 ms as the target changed from blue to yellow to green, and then made quick reaching movements through the target. Once crossing the invisible outer circle, the endpoint location of the reach (or rotated reach) would be displayed as a red cursor. On some of the trials, after the target turned yellow, an auditory cue was played 500 ms after the target turned yellow and participants responded by quickly pressing a foot pedal under their right foot. The reaction time of the foot pedal press was used as the measure of cognitive load