Table 4 Validity, reliability and responsiveness of robot-aided assessments of lower limb functions

pROM

Lokomat

-

-

-

-

-

Isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex System 3 Pro dynamometer - Biodex Medical Systems Inc., Shirley, NY, USA)

-

Ankle DF: ICC ≥ 0.938

SEM = 1.4°

Ankle DF: ICC ≥ 0.930

SEM = 0.8°

MDC = 2.2°-3.3°

[34], 15 stroke patients

Manual spasticity evaluator

-

ρ = 0.95

ICC = 0.86

-

[45], 12 children with CP, 5 able-bodied (AB) adults

Anklebot

Mean absolute error over two planes ≤1°

-

-

-

[49], validation vs electrogoniometer using a mock-up foot

Ankle assessment device

-

-

Ankle DF: ICC = 0.846

Ankle PF: ICC = 0.958

Ankle DF: MDC = 3.27°

Ankle PF: MDC = 3.81°

[232], 9 AB subjects

aROM

-

-

-

-

-

No studies found

Muscle strength

Isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex System 3)

-

-

Isometric peak torque control subjects: ICC ≥ 0.92; SEM ≤ 25.1 Nm

Peak torque patients, contralesional limb

ICC ≥ 0.86, SEM ≤ 23.9 Nm

-

[90], 17 subjects with stroke, 13 AB subjects

Lokomat, isometric test

-

Hip: ICC ≥ 0.87, SEM ≤ 11.2 Nm; Knee: ICC ≥ 0.85, SEM ≤ 7.9 Nm.

Hip: ICC ≥ 0.79, SEM ≤ 10.5 Nm; Knee: ICC ≥ 0.84, SEM ≤ 8.2 Nm.

-

[10], 14 subjects with neurological movement disorders, 16 AB subjects

Ankle assessment device

-

-

Ankle DF: ICC = 0.949

Ankle PF: ICC = 0.858

Ankle DF: MDC = 1.69 Nm

Ankle PF: MDC = 1.68 Nm

[232], 9 AB subjects

Proprioception

Modified Biodex chair, TTDPM test

-

-

Knee frontal plane: ICC ≥ 0.40

-

[104], 17 AB subjects

Chair with knee actuator, TTDPM test

-

OA: ICC = 0.91, SEM = 2.13°, AB: ICC = 0.89, SEM = 0.43°

OA: ICC = 0.91, SEM = 2.26°, AB: ICC = 0.86, SEM = 0.39°

-

[113] 24 subjects with OA, 26 AB subjects

Lokomat, JPR test

vs clinical score:

Hip: ρ = 0.507,

Knee: ρ = 0.790

-

SCI, Hip: ICC = 0.55, Knee: ICC = 0.882

AB, Hip: ICC = 0.493, Knee: ICC = 0.656

-

[106], 23 SCI and 23 AB subjects

Lokomat, TTDPM test

vs manual kinesthesia assessment: left hip, r = −0.71; left knee, r = −0.86; right hip, r = −0.47; right knee, r = −0.57

-

AB, hip: ICC = 0.88 left, ICC = 0.94 right; knee ICC = 0.90 left, ICC = 0.91 right.

SCI, hip: ICC = 0.97 left, ICC = 0.96 right; knee: ICC = 0.95 left, ICC = 0.96 right

-

[114], 17 SCI and 17 AB subjects

Manual kinesthesia assessment: 1 point for each correct movement detection

Abnormal joint synergies

-

-

-

-

-

No studies found

Passive ankle stiffness

Manual spasticity evaluator

-

Ankle DF 4°: r = 0.81

Ankle DF 4°: ICC = 0.82

-

[45], 12 children with CP

Ankle perturbator

Repeated testing of known static torque: ICC = 0.994

ICC = 0.767-0.943

-

-

[233], 10 AB subjects

Ankle assessment device

-

-

Ankle DF 20°: ICC = 0.863

Ankle DF 30°: ICC = 0.865

Ankle DF 20°: MDC = 0.0686 Nm/°

Ankle DF 30°: MDC = 0.1323 Nm/°

[232], 9 AB subjects

Active ankle stiffness

Ankle perturbator

-

-

r > 0.8

-

[164], 11 AB subjects

Ankle perturbator

-

Between-trial: ICC = 0.76–0.99 and between-day: ICC = 0.64–0.95

-

-

[165], 38 children with CP and 35 AB subjects

Walking function/Gait pattern

Exosuit: strain sensors

Mean absolute error ≤ 8°

-

-

-

[61], 1 AB subject

Soft ankle orthosis: strain sensors, IMUs

Mean error strain sensor: 0.255 ± 1.63°

Mean error IMUs: 0.135 ± 2.85°

-

-

-

[204], 1 AB subject