Table 1 Main technical aspects of the exoskeletons
From: Systematic review on wearable lower-limb exoskeletons for gait training in neuromuscular impairments
Exoskeleton | Actuated joints | Actuator | Sensor | Control method | Gait initiation mode | Device weight (kg) | User height (cm) and weight (kg) | Operation time (h) | Unique features |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
WPAL [39] | HKA | Electric | JA, JT | Trajectory Interaction | Button | 13 | 145–180 80 | \(>1\) | Alternating use of robot and wheelchair |
H2 [40] | HKA | Elecric | JA, JT, IT, FF | Trajectory Interaction | Button | 12 | 145–195 100 | 6 | – |
REX [41] | HKA | Electric | – | Trajectory | Joystick | 38 | 146–195 100 | 1 | Joystick and three-button keypad |
HAL [37] | HKa\(^{*}\) | Electric | EMG, JA, FF, Acc | Trajectory Interaction EMG-control | EMG Weight shifts | 14 | 150–190 100 | 1.5 | Independent leg |
Ekso [77] | HKa | Electric | JA, FF, Acc AJA, ACF | Trajectory Interaction | Weight shifts Button | 23 | 158–188 100 | 1 | FDA for stroke |
ReWalk [19] | HKa | Electric | JA, FF, Ori | Trajectory | Weight shifts CoM (body tilt) | 23.3 | 160–190 100 | 2 | FDA for home use |
Robin [78] | HKa | Electric | FF, Acc, CAcc | – | Weight shifts | 11 | – – | – | – |
CUHK-EXO [42] | HKa | Electric | JA, FF, Acc Ori, CF, CAcc | Trajectory | Phone App Crutch buttons Upper body movements | 18 | 155–185 – | 3 | – |
ITRI [43] | HKa | Electric | – | Trajectory | Button | 20 | – – | – | – |
Vanderbilt Exoskeleton [79] | HK | Electric | JA, Acc, Ori | Trajectory Interaction | CoP (body tilt) | 12 | – – | – | – |
Indego [21] | HK\(^{\dagger }\) | Electric | JA, Acc, Ori | Trajectory Interaction | CoP (body tilt) | 12 | 155–191 113 | 1.5 | FDA for stroke |
ARKE [80] | HK\(^{\dagger }\) | Electric | JA, FF, Acc, Ori | Trajectory | Weight shifts | – | – – | – | – |
Curara [45] | HK | Electric | JA, JT, IT | Trajectory Interaction | Motion intent | 5.8 | – – | – | – |
Arazpour2013a [81] | HK\(^{\dagger }\) | Electric | JA | Trajectory | Orthotist via joystick | 10.1 | – – | – | – |
Kim2013 [53] | HK\(^{\dagger }\) | Pneumatic | EMG (arms), FF | – | – | – | – – | 3 | Air muscles for hip |
Chang2017 [46] | HK\(^{\dagger }\) | Hydraulic | JA, FF, Acc, Ori | Trajectory | Button | 7.9 | 152–193 100 | 2 | Functional Neuro-muscular Stimulation |
SMA [47] | H | Electric | JA, JT | Trajectory Interaction | Motion intent | 2.7 | 140–200 – | 1 | – |
Keeogo [48] | hK | Electric | – | Trajectory Interaction | Motion intent | 5.4 | Above 155 – | 2.5 | Squatting lunging |
Kinesis [82] | Ka | Electric | JA, FF, IT, Ori | Trajectory Interaction | Button | 9.2 | \(<185\) 90 | – | Hybrid (FES) |
Lerner2017 [83] | Ka | Electric | JA, JT, FF | – | – | 3.2 | Children | 1 | – |
AlterG Bionic Leg [84] | K\(^{\dagger }\) | Electric | JA, JT, FF, Acc | Trajectory Interaction | Motion intent | 3.5 | 153–182 136 | 2–3 | Unilateral |
K\(^{\dagger }\) | Electric | FF | Trajectory | Weight shifts | 3.6 | – – | – | Unilateral | |
Kawasaki2017 [87] | K | Electric | Acc | Trajectory | Motion intent | 3 | – – | – | Actuator attached to a KAFO Batteries on a belt |
Yeung2017 [49] | A | Electric | FF, Acc, Ori | – | Foot lift off | 1 | – – | 5 | Battery carried at the waist Unilateral |
Boes2017 [50] | A | Pneumatic | JA, FF | Trajectory | Weight shifts | 3.1 | – – | – | Unilateral |