Table 2 Study characteristics of reviewed studies

Ates et al., 2014 [58]; Three EU countries (unspecified)

To report on the technical challenges presented by the use of SPO and the feedback from therapists and patients

Technical & performance evaluation

24 patients; 33–81 years; 11 m and 9 f

No information about the therapists

Stroke; hand impairment

Clinical observation and descriptive summary into themes

Beveridge et al., 2015 [34]; Canada

To explore the experiences and perspectives of parents whose young, ambulatory children with CP were undergoing Lokomat gait training, and consider how parents' values about walking influenced therapy decisions for their children

Qualitative descriptive design

5 mothers and 1 fathers of 5 (4 m and 1 f) children; children aged 5–11 years; 2 parents were Anglo-Canadian and the others from Asian backgrounds

Cerebral palsy; walking rehabilitation

Individual, semi-structured, face-to-face interviews; followed the Dierckx de Casterle approach to analysis of qualitative data: the Qualitative Analysis Guide of Leuven (QUAGOL)

Bezmez and Yardimci, 2016 [54]; Turkey

To explore the role of a robotic gait training device (Lokomat) and its role in rehabilitation in Turkey

Ethnographic study

42 participants; 7 doctors, 2 nurses, 2 physiotherapists, 2 non-medical personnel, 20 in-patients, and 9 former patients

Traumatic injury or illnesses; bodily disability and inability to walk

Individual, semi-structured interviews; no information provided on the method of analysis

Cahill et al., 2018 [25]; Ireland

To gain an understanding of the experience of using a RWD within a gym-based setting from the perspective of non-ambulatory individuals with SCI

Qualitative methodology

4 males and 1 female; mean age 40.75

Spinal cord injury; walking rehabilitation

In-depth semi-structured interviews; thematic analysis

Danzl et al., 2013 [41]; USA

To investigate the feasibility of combining tDCS to the LE motor cortex with novel locomotor training to facilitate gait in subjects with chronic stroke and low ambulatory status; and to obtain insight from participants and their carers to inform future trial design

Mixed methods: a double-blind, sham-controlled, randomized quantitative design and an exploratory descriptive qualitative design

Final sample 8 patients; 4 males and 4 females; mean age of 67.8 years (range, 44–80 years)

Stroke; lower limb (gait) rehabilitation

Semi-structured interviews; inductive thematic analysis

Eicher et al., 2019 [27]; Germany

To identify differences regarding usability, acceptability, and barriers of usage of a robot-supported gait rehabilitation system between a younger and older group of patients with gait impairments

Pilot/feasibility study assessing system usability of a robot-supported gait rehabilitation system between a younger and older group of patients with gait impairments

13 completed all sessions; 7 were older patients (group G: 75 mean age, range 69–84), 6 were younger patients (group Y: 36 mean age, range 20–55); 11 male and 2 females

Stroke/brain haemorrhage, hemiplegia, other (e.g., accidents, falls, not specified); gait rehabilitation

Structured interviews; qualitative content analysis by Mayring (2010)

Elnady et al., 2018 [35]; Canada

To describe users’ perceptions about existing wearable robotic devices for the upper extremity; identify if there is a need to develop new devices for the upper extremity and the desired features; and to explore obstacles that would influence the utilization of these new devices

Exploratory focus group discussions

Group 1: 8 people with stroke (1 f and 7 m);

Group 2: 8 therapists: 4 Physiotherapists, 2 Occupational therapists; 2 Rehabilitation assistants (8 f)

Stroke; upper limb rehabilitation

Focus groups; thematic analysis

Flynn et al., 2019 [53]; Australia

To explore occupational therapists’ and physiotherapists’ perceptions of robotic therapy for the upper limb and the perceived barriers and enablers influencing implementation

Qualitative methodology involving two discipline-specific focus groups

12 participants: 6 occupational therapists (mean age = 29 years, range = 24–39) and 6 physiotherapists (mean age = 30, range = 23–51); 9 female and 3 males

Stroke; upper limb movement at the shoulder, elbow and hand (with the wrist fixed in neutral or pronation)

Focus groups; data were deductively analysed using the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF)

Gilbert et al., 2018 [46]; UK

To determine whether or not the MUJO System was acceptable to patients with shoulder dysfunction and their rehabilitation professionals

Qualitative study

10 patients (median age was 38.5 years, range = 19–54; 5 f and 5 m) and 7 physiotherapists

Shoulder instability (n = 6) and rotator cuff related pain (n = 4); rehabilitation of the rotator cuff muscles (bi-articular muscles or multiple axial joints)

Interviews; Directed Content Analysis was undertaken to organise the qualitative data according to the four constructs of Normalisation Process Theory (NPT)

Heinemann et al., 2018 [28]; USA

To describe clinicians’ experiences, evaluations, and training strategies using exoskeletons in rehabilitation and wellness settings

Qualitative focus groups

30 healthcare professionals: 90% Physical therapist, 2% Administrative, 8% Other clinical role (exercise therapist, recreational therapist); mean age was 37, range = 28–53; 86% female

Spinal cord injuries; Standing and gait rehabilitation

Focus groups; thematic analysis

Heinemann et al., 2020 [42]; USA

To describe appraisals of robotic exoskeletons for locomotion by potential users with spinal cord injuries, their perceptions of device benefits and limitations, and recommendations for manufacturers and therapists regarding device use

Qualitative focus groups

35 patients; mean age = 48; 17% female

Spinal cord injuries; Gait rehabilitation

Focus groups; thematic analysis

Hochstenbach-Waelen and Seelen, 2012 [55]; The Netherlands

To identify criteria and conditions that people, involved in development of rehabilitation technology for upper limb training of stroke patients, should take into account to achieve a (more) successful implementation of the technology in daily clinical practice

Literature search and interviews

6 senior physiotherapists and occupational therapists

Stroke; upper limb rehabilitation

Semi-structured interviews; method of data analysis was not reported

Hughes et al., 2011 [47]; UK

To understand the stroke participants’ experiences of using the novel combination of a robotic arm and iterative learning control system and to gain greater insight into how systems might be improved in the future

Mixed-methods study, involving open-ended and closed questions

5 patients; mean age was 52 years (range = 38–77); 3 males and 2 females

Stroke; upper limb rehabilitation

Two ways data were collected: comments were recorded during the time when participants were receiving the intervention and immediately following the clinical study, an interview based question set was used; content analysis

Huq et al., 2012 [36]; Canada

To develop a portable robotic system with a haptic interface that facilitates the concept of rehabilitation at a remote location, e.g., at a home; to develop a GUI that integrates different control techniques and VR games in the same screen, and allows therapists to easily interact with the system; and to evaluate the current system with therapists in a focus group study

Focus group study

3 physiotherapists and 4 occupational therapists

Stroke; upper limb rehabilitation

Focus groups; summary of findings

Kumar and Phillips, 2013 [48]; UK

To explore the views, experiences, benefits, and difficulties that users of one specific type of PMAS perceive, and determine which areas of daily life they are used in

Mixed-methods approach, including questionnaire and interviews

13 patients; age range = 13–69 years (12 men and boys, mean age 25 years, mode age 14 years; and 1 woman, 69 years)

Neuromuscular conditions; upper limb rehabilitation

Semi-structured interviews; thematic analysis

Lajeunesse et al., 2018 [37]; Canada

To present the perspectives of individuals with ASIA C or D incomplete SCI concerning the usability of lower limb exoskeletons to R&D engineers and clinicians working in motor rehabilitation

Exploratory qualitative research design with a user-centred approach

13 patients; 6 males (mean age = 59.8) and 7 females (mean age = 43)

Incomplete spinal cord injury; lower limb rehabilitation

Individual, semi-structured interviews; inductive thematic analysis

Lo et al., 2020 [56]; Asia, Australia, Europe and USA

To inform rehabilitation clinicians about the various aspects of adopting and integrating robotic stroke therapy into clinical settings

Qualitative description design

8 rehabilitation therapists

Stroke and other neurological conditions, such as spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis (MS), brain tumours and traumatic brain injuries; upper and lower limb training

Semi-structured interviews; qualitative descriptive analysis

Manns et al., 2019 [26]; Canada

To explore the expectations and experiences of persons with spinal cord injury, training with the ReWalk exoskeleton

Qualitative research design

11 patients (mean age = 37.5, range = 18–65 years); 4 females and 7 males

Traumatic spinal cord injury; standing and walking training

Semi-structured interviews; thematic analysis

Mortenson et al., 2020 [38]; Canada

To explore the experiences of physiotherapists with the introduction of an exoskeleton as a gait retraining device in a Canadian rehabilitation centre

Longitudinal qualitative study

10 therapists (one group of therapists, n = 4, was formally trained using the device, whereas the other group only had clinical exposure to the device, n = 6); mean age = 40 years; 8 females and 2 males

Brain and spinal cord injuries; gait training

Semi-structured interviews; thematic analysis

Nasr et al., 2015 [57]; UK, Italy and the Netherlands

To examine stroke survivors’ experiences of living with stroke and with technology in order to provide technology developers with insight into values, thoughts and feelings of the potential users of a to-be-designed robotic technology for home-based rehabilitation of the hand and wrist

Interdisciplinary research design and qualitative study

10 households (10 patients and 8 carers); age range = 60–77; 7 males and 3 females

Stroke; upper limb rehabilitation

Application of qualitative methods such as in-depth interviews as well as using diaries and photography activities; thematic analysis

O' Brien Cherry et al., 2017 [43]; USA

To determine participants’ general impressions about the benefits and barriers of using RT devices for in-home rehabilitation

Qualitative study design employing ethnographic- based anthropological methods

10 veterans (plus their carers); age range = 49–88; all males

Stroke; upper or lower limb impairments

Direct observations and semi-structured interviews; inductive thematic analysis

Phelan et al., 2015 [39]; Canada

To investigate the expectations and experiences of children with CP in relation to robotic gait training using the Lokomat Pro

An interpretivist qualitative design

5 children (8–11 years; 3 boys and 2 girls) and their parents (28–52 years; 3 mothers and 2 fathers);

Cerebral palsy; gait rehabilitation

Observations during sessions, semi-structured interviews with parents and use of a customizable “toolbox” of age-appropriate child-friendly techniques; thematic analysis

Read et al., 2020 [40]; Canada

To explore how the training and implementation of using the Ekso robotic exoskeleton with patients affects physiotherapists’ work

An exploratory qualitative research design

3 physiotherapists

Individuals with SCIs and hemiplegia due to stroke; gait training

One-on-one semi-structured interviews; thematic analysis

Sivan et al., 2016 [49]; UK

To evaluate the ICF as a framework to ensure that key aspects of user feedback are identified in the design and testing stages of development of a home-based upper limb rehabilitation system

Qualitative study

17 patients and 7 physiotherapists and occupational therapists

Stroke; upper limb rehabilitation

Face-to-face semi-structured interviews; analysis based on the updated International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) linking rules and core set categories

Stephenson and Stephens, 2018 [50]; UK

To explore physiotherapists' experience of using RT in rehabilitation of the upper limb, within a stroke rehabilitation centre

Phenomenological approach/qualitative study

6 physiotherapists; 3 males and 3 females

Stroke; upper limb rehabilitation

Semi-structured interviews; thematic analysis

Swank et al., 2020 [44]; USA

To describe therapists’ clinical practice experiences with robotic gait training (RGT) over 3 years during inpatient rehabilitation

Mixed methods study, including a survey and semi-structured focus group

10 physical therapists

Condition not specified; gait training

Semi-structured focus group; thematic analysis

Swank et al., 2020b [29]; USA

To determine the feasibility of integrating the Ekso Gait Training device into inpatient rehabilitation in a neurologic population

Longitudinal cohort design, including a focus group (therapists) and survey (therapists and patients)

Physical therapists (exact number not reported)

Stroke and SCI; gait training

Semi-structured focus group; thematic analysis

Sweeney et al., 2020 [51]; UK

To understand user perceptions in order to explain low uptake of upper limb rehabilitation interventions after stroke in clinical practice within the National Health Service (NHS Scotland)

Qualitative study using a mixed-methods approach, consisting of a cross-sectional online survey with therapists and semi-structured interviews with stroke patients

8 stroke patients from a Constraint Induced Movement Therapy (n = 2) and Robotic Therapy (n = 6) groups

Stroke; upper limb rehabilitation

Semi-structured interviews; thematic analysis

Tedesco Triccas et al., 2018 [52]; UK

To explore views and experiences of people with sub-acute and chronic stroke that had previously taken part in a randomised controlled trial involving tDCS and RT for their impaired upper limb

A structured and semi-structured interview study, involving qualitative and quantitative components

21 patients; 12 males and 9 females; mean age was 64.2

Stroke; upper limb rehabilitation

Interviews involving open questions; thematic analysis

Thomassen et al., 2019 [45]; USA

To generate new knowledge regarding user experiences of standing and walking with Ekso™ (Ekso Bionics, Richmond, CA, USA)

Qualitative (interview) study

3 patients; all male of different ages (from young adult to middle aged)

Spinal cord injury (due to traumatic and non-traumatic reasons); standing and walking training

In-depth interviews in a phenomenological tradition; systematic inductive content analyses