Table 1 Main characteristics of included studies

Kashif (2022) [24]

Pakistan

13/9

12/10

63.86 ± 4.57

62.32 ± 4.61

2.11 ± 0.74

2.25 ± 0.67

Physical therapy + virtual reality (Nintendo Wii) + motor imagery

Physical therapy

60 min/d

3 d/wk

6, 12 wks

Follow-up to 16 wks

Full, physical therapist

UPDRS II

< 0.001

UPDRS III

< 0.001

BBS

< 0.001

ABC

< 0.001

Pazzaglia (2020) [25]

Italy

18/7

17/9

72 ± 7

70 ± 10

NR

NR

Virtual reality (NIRVANA)

Physical therapy

40 min/d

3 d/wk

6 wks

Full, physical therapist

BBS

NR

DGI

NR

Santos (2019) [26]

Brazil

11/2

11/3

61.7 ± 7.3

64.5 ± 9.8

1.4 ± 0.6

1.3 ± 0.3

Virtual reality (Nintendo Wii)

Conventional exercise

50 min/d

2 d/wk

8 wks

Full, physiotherapist

BBS

0.968

DGI

0.277

9/5

66.6 ± 8.2

1.5 ± 0.4

Virtual reality (Nintendo Wii) + conventional exercise

TUGT

0.824

PDQ-39

0.331

Feng (2019) [27]

China

8/7

9/6

67.47 ± 4.79

66.93 ± 4.64

3.03 ± 0.55

2.97 ± 0.58

Virtual reality

Physical therapy

45 min/d

5 d/wk

12 wks

Full, physical therapist

BBS

NR

TUGT

NR

UPDRS III

NR

FGA

NR

Ferraz (2018) [28]

Brazil

10/10

16/6

67 (66–68)

71 (66–75)

2.5 (2.0–2.5)

2.5 (2.5–3.0)

Virtual reality (Xbox 360 with Kinect)

Functional training

50 min/d

3 d/wk

8 wks

Full, physiotherapist

6MWT

NS

10MWT

NS

11/9

67 (64–71)

2.5 (2.0–3.0)

Bicycle exercise

PDQ-39

NS

Ribas (2017) [29]

Brazil

4/6

4/6

61.70 ± 6.83

60.20 ± 11.29

1.25 (1–2)

1.5 (1–2)

Virtual reality (Nintendo Wii)

Conventional exercise

30 min/d

2 d/wk

12 wks

60d follow-up

Full, physiotherapist

BBS

0.043

6MWT

0.023

Gandolfi (2017) [30]

Italy

23/15

28/10

67.45 (7.18)

69.84 (9.41)

2.5 (2.5–2.5)

2.5 (2.5–3.0)

Virtual reality (Nintendo Tele Wii)

Sensory integration balance training

50 min/d

3 d/wk

7 wks

1-month follow-up

Full, physiotherapist

BBS

0.02

ABC

NS

10MWT

NS

DGI

NS

Carpinella (2017) [31]

Italy

14/3

9/11

73.0 ± 7.1

75.6 ± 8.2

2.7 ± 0.7

2.9 ± 0.5

Gamepad-based training

Physiotherapy

45 min/d

3 d/wk

7 wks

1-month follow-up

Full, physiotherapist

BBS

0.047

10MWT

0.335

TUGT

0.269

UPDRS III

0.545

ABC

0.186

FOG-Q

0.695

PDQ-39

0.844

Yang (2016) [32]

Taiwan

7/4

7/5

72.5 ± 8.4

75.4 ± 6.3

3(3–3)

3(3–3)

VR balance training

Conventional balance training

50 min/d

2 d/wk

6 wks

Follow-up to 8 wks

Full, physiotherapist

BBS

0.893

DGI

0.970

PDQ-39

0.684

UPDRS III

0.345

Shih (2016) [33]

Taiwan

9/1

7/3

67.5 ± 9.96

68.8 ± 9.67

1.6 ± 0.84

1.4 ± 0.52

Balance-based exergaming with Kinect

Conventional balance training

50 min/d

2 d/wk

8 wks

Not clear

BBS

NS

TUGT

NS

Liao (2015) [34]

Taiwan

6/6

6/6

67.3 ± 7.1

65.1 ± 6.7

2.0 ± 0.7

2.0 ± 0.8

Virtual reality (Nintendo Wii)

Traditional exercise

45 min/d

2 d/wk

6 wks

1-month follow-up

Not clear

TUGT

< 0.01

PDQ-39

< 0.01

van den Heuvel (2014) [35]

Netherland

12/5

8/8

66.3 ± 6.39

68.8 ± 9.68

2.5 (2.0–2.5)

2.5 (2.0–3.0)

Visual feedback training

Conventional balance training

60 min/d

2 d/wk

5 wks

follow-up to 12 wks

Full, physical therapist

BBS

0.108

10MWT

0.171

UPDRS III

0.021

PDQ-39

0.444

Pedreira (2013) [36]

Brazil

11/5

11/4

61.1 ± 8.2

66.2 ± 8.5

2.5 ± 0.6

2.4 ± 0.7

Virtual reality (Nintendo Wii)

Physical therapy

40 min/d

3 d/wk

4 wks

Not clear

PDQ-39

NR

Pompeu (2012) [37]

Brazil

NR

NR

67.4 ± 8.1

66.2 ± 8.3

1–2

1–2

Wii-based motor and cognitive training

Global and balance exercise

60 min/d

2 d/wk

7 wks

60d follow-up

Full, physiotherapist

UPDRS II

NS

BBS

NS