Table 1 Clinical characteristic of the participants

Age (years)

61.4 ± 11.3

61.2 ± 11.4

61.7 ± 11.2

0.681

Sex (male), n (%)

48 (87.3%)

35 (85.4%)

13 (92.6%)

0.664

Period from onset

to driving school (days)

182.3 ± 165.0

155.9 ± 121.7

259.6 ± 242.6

0.143

Disease

 Infarction, n (%)

36 (65.5%)

28 (68.3%)

8 (57.1%)

0.522

 Hemorrhage, n (%)

20 (36.3%)

14 (34.1%)

6 (42.9%)

0.749

Stroke severity

 Motor FIM on admission

59.2 ± 20.7

62.4 ± 20.6

48.2 ± 17.6

0.0095

 Cognitive FIM on admission

26.6 ± 6.9

27.2 ± 7.3

24.7 ± 4.7

0.0329

 Motor FIM on discharge

81.3 ± 9.6

82.4 ± 8.9

77.6 ± 11.1

0.0386

 Cognitive FIM on discharge

31.0 ± 4.4

31.6 ± 4.5

29.1 ± 3.8

0.015

 Motor FIM improvement rate

22.0 ± 16.8

20.0 ± 17.2

29.1 ± 13.6

0.0291

 Cognitive FIM improvement

4.4 ± 5.8

4.4 ± 6.0

4.4 ± 5.2

0.7703

Physical disability

 BRS total score on admission

12.9 ± 5.8

13.8 ± 5.4

10.4 ± 6.3

0.1382

 BRS total score on discharge

15.6 ± 3.8

16.0 ± 3.6

14.5 ± 4.4

0.1661

 Dominant side Left, n (%)

5 (9.1%)

5 (12.2%)

0 (0%)

0.314

 Dominant side Right, n (%)

52 (94.6%)

38 (92.7%)

14 (100%)

0.562

 Affected side Left, n (%)

28 (50.9%)

17 (41.5%)

11 (78.6%)

0.0286

 Affected side Right, n (%)

27 (49.1%)

24 (58.5%)

3 (21.4%)

0.0286

 Ataxia, n (%)

3 (5.5%)

3 (7.3%)

0 (0%)

0.562

 Dysarthria, n (%)

2 (3.6%)

2 (4.9%)

0 (0%)

1

 Aphasia, n (%)

4 (7.3%)

2 (4.9%)

2 (14.3%)

0.265

 Hospitalization period (days)

70.8 ± 45.3

64.2 ± 37.9

90.1 ± 59.6

0.186

Psychological assessment

 HADS-Depression

4.9 ± 3.5

4.3 ± 3.5

6.6 ± 3.3

0.0298

 HADS-Anxiety

5.3 ± 3.3

5.3 ± 3.5

5.3 ± 3.1

0.9058

 Apathy score

11.7 ± 5.8

11.4 ± 5.5

12.5 ± 6.9

0.6327

 JPSS

20.2 ± 6.0

19.7 ± 6.1

21.6 ± 5.5

0.3839

Cognitive function test

 MMSE: Orientation-time

4.6 ± 0.7

4.9 ± 0.4

4.0 ± 1.0

0.0004

 MMSE: Orientation-location

4.8 ± 0.5

4.8 ± 0.5

4.7 ± 0.5

0.4647

 MMSE: Attention and calculation

3.8 ± 1.7

3.9 ± 1.7

3.6 ± 1.6

0.4967

 MMSE: Recall

2.6 ± 0.6

2.6 ± 0.6

2.7 ± 0.6

0.4985

 MMSE: Naming

2.0 ± 0.3

2.0 ± 0.3

2.0 ± 0

0.3233

 MMSE: Repetition, n (%)

52 (94.6%)

38 (92.7%)

14 (100%)

0.562

 MMSE: 3-stage command

3.0 ± 0.2

3.0 ± 0.2

3.0 ± 0.0

0.1598

 MMSE: Writing, n (%)

50 (90.9%)

38 (92.7%)

12 (85.7%)

0.592

 MMSE: Copying, n (%)

45 (81.8%)

34 (82.9%)

11 (78.6%)

0.703

 MMSE total score

27.5 ± 2.7

27.7 ± 2.6

26.7 ± 2.9

0.2129

 TMT part A time

59.7 ± 40.0

51.8 ± 22.2

82.9 ± 65.9

0.0051

 Digit span forward

5.6 ± 1.0

5.6 ± 0.1

5.4 ± 1.0

0.8395

 Digit span backward

4.0 ± 1.3

4.0 ± 1.5

3.7 ± 0.8

0.4963

 Tapping span forward

5.6 ± 1.4

5.9 ± 1.3

4.8 ± 1.7

0.0166

 Tapping span backward

5.1 ± 1.5

5.4 ± 1.4

4.4 ± 1.5

0.0250

 Visual cancellation Kana time

145.5 ± 38.0

146.7 ± 36.7

141.8 ± 42.7

0.7739

 Visual cancellation \(\triangle\) time

70.2 ± 24.3

67.8 ± 20.7

77.2 ± 32.6

0.391

 Visual cancellation star time

78.0 ± 20.2

77.1 ± 21.5

80.8 ± 16.0

0.4058

 Visual cancellation figure time

120.2 ± 35.0

120.3 ± 34.0

119.9 ± 39.1

0.9567

 Visual cancellation Kana accuracy

93.4 ± 11.7

95.9 ± 5.3

85.8 ± 20.0

0.0094

 Visual cancellation Kana hit rate

99.5 ± 1.8

99.7 ± 1.5

99.2 ± 2.5

0.4411

 Visual cancellation \(\triangle\) accuracy

97.2 ± 7.9

98.5 ± 2.0

93.3 ± 15.0

0.0770

 Visual cancellation \(\triangle\) hit rate

99.0 ± 3.6

99.6 ± 1.2

97.2 ± 6.8

0.5435

 Visual cancellation star accuracy

97.7 ± 9.3

99.3 ± 1.7

93.1 ± 17.9

0.0218

 Visual cancellation star hit rate

99.4 ± 2.6

99.6 ± 1.1

98.7 ± 4.9

0.5124

 Visual cancellation figure accuracy

97.3 ± 10.7

99.0 ± 1.4

92.3 ± 20.9

0.0108

 Visual cancellation figure hit rate

99.9 ± 0.6

99.9 ± 0.2

99.7 ± 1.1

0.7517

 SDMT number of wrong answers

1.2 ± 2.0

1.2 ± 2.1

1.1 ± 1.9

0.6637

 SDMT acheivement rate

32.9 ± 10.2

34.7 ± 9.3

27.6 ± 11.3

0.0334

 Memory updating 3 span accuracy

60.2 ± 21.3

62.5 ± 22.1

53.6 ± 18.0

0.1144

 PASAT 2 seconds accuracy

45.6 ± 17.0

47.5 ± 17.5

40.3 ± 14.7

0.1432

 Position stroop accuracy

96.5 ± 8.6

97.7 ± 3.7

92.8 ± 15.6

0.977

 Position stroop time

115.4 ± 40.4

110.2 ± 28.0

130.6 ± 63.6

0.1832

 CPTAX accuracy

93.7 ± 9.1

95.1 ± 7.8

89.7 ± 11.7

0.0572

 CPTAX hit rate

89.2 ± 14.2

91.1 ± 12.1

83.6 ± 18.5

0.1203

 CPTAX average reaction time

584.7 ± 88.5

578.9 ± 93.1

601.6 ± 74.1

0.3051

 CPTAX coefficient of validation

17.4 ± 4.6

17.3 ± 4.3

17.9 ± 5.5

0.661

 CPTSRT accuracy

95.8 ± 9.4

98.3 ± 1.9

88.5 ± 16.6

0.0168

 CPTSRT hit rate

97.1 ± 8.4

98.9 ± 1.4

91.8 ± 15.7

0.0085

 CPTSRT average reaction time

386.1 ± 96.3

362.0 ± 70.2

456.5 ± 127.4

0.0499

 CPTSRT coefficient of validation

21.5 ± 6.7

21.7 ± 6.8

20.7 ± 6.7

0.7512

 CPTX accuracy

95.8 ± 8.7

98.3 ± 3.9

88.6 ± 13.9

0.0001

 CPTX hit rate

94.0 ± 11.6

96.5 ± 5.9

86.4 ± 19.3

0.0042

 CPTX average reaction time

564.8 ± 89.1

549.0 ± 78.9

610.8 ± 103.6

0.0572

 CPTX coefficient of validation

14.9 ± 4.5

14.6 ± 4.7

15.6 ± 3.9

0.266

 Line crossing test

36.0 ± 0.3

36.0 ± 0.2

35.9 ± 0.5

0.5335

 Letter cancellation test

37.4 ± 3.2

38.0 ± 2.4

35.6 ± 4.4

0.0159

 Star cancellation test

52.8 ± 4.0

53.6 ± 0.7

50.3 ± 7.4

0.0434

 Copying test

3.4 ± 1.1

3.7 ± 0.6

2.4 ± 1.5

0.0058

 Line bisection test

8.6 ± 1.4

8.9 ± 0.5

7.9 ± 2.5

0.1215

 Drawing test

2.8 ± 0.7

2.9 ± 0.6

2.5 ± 0.9

0.0736

 BIT conventional subtest

140.8 ± 8.1

142.9 ± 3.2

134.6 ± 13.7

0.0054

 BIT behavioral subtest

77.9 ± 7.8

79.1 ± 2.5

74.4 ± 14.7

0.1087

 RBMT profile

19.5 ± 3.7

20.2 ± 3.5

17.4 ± 3.3

0.0003