Table 1 Sensorimotor adaptation and learning: state-of-the-art and future directions

State-of-the-art

a. Separate models for different adaptation processes: error, reinforcement,

and use-dependency.

b. Neural conditions and neural circuits associated with separate learning processes.

c. Experiments and models that focus on short-term (i.e., single day) adaptation

and retention.

Future directions

a. Studies and models that focus on the interaction of multiple learning processes,

and exploiting these interacting and or redundant processes for neurorehabilitation.

b. Research paradigms that focus on how motor controllers are constructed from

scratch (de novo) to better understand long-term learning and retention to

provide more effective and long-lasting patient outcomes.

c. Develop models / devices that co-adapt and incorporate how humans learn,

while optimizing assistance and resistance to maximize patient recovery.