Table 3 Included studies examining the effects of visual skills training on cognitive functions and activities of daily living in stroke patients

Chen et al. [55]

80 (28 F, 52 M); 57.74 ± 8.54 yrs; various; cognitive dysfunction

< 3 months

INT (n = 40); visual skills training

CON (n = 40); conventional physiotherapy and gait rehabilitation

INT: 4 wk / 16 sessions; 30 min

Visual skills training focused on multiple executive functions; attention, memory ability, spatial orientation

CON: no details reported

MoCA (score)

Global cognitive function pre-/post-intervention

MoCA:

INT pre: 13.0 (2.2)

CON pre: 13.0 (2.2)

INT post: 18.0 (1.5)

CON post: 14.5 (2.2)

+

Fadle et al. [76]

INT (2 F, 13 M); 54 ± 6.5 yrs; NA; NA

CON (3 F, 12 M); 53.2 ± 5.91; NA; NA

INT: 8.33 (2.35) months

CON: 8.66 (1.95) months

INT (n = 15); visuomotor training

CON (n = 15); physical therapy and cognitive training

INT: 4 wk / 28 sessions; 30 min

Visual and kinesthetic visuomotor exercises

CON: 4 wk / 28 sessions; 60 min

Cognitive and dual-task training, time up and go task with phonologic fluency

MoCA (score)

Global cognitive function pre-/post-intervention

MoCA:

INT pre: 21.33 (2.28)

CON pre: 20.53 (1.64)

INT post: 24.2 (2.54)

CON post: 22.13 (1.99)

-

Schoettke [77]

INT (7 F, 9 M); 64.1 ± 8.5 yrs; various; motor dysfunction

CON (7 F, 6 M); 65.4 ± 10.9 yrs; various; motor dysfunction

INT: 1.7 (0.7) months

CON: 1.3 (0.4) months

INT (n = 16); visual-cognitive training

CON (n = 13); physical- and occupational therapy

INT: 3 wk / 13 sessions; NA

Visual-cognitive training combined with conventional rehabilitation

CON: no details reported

Physical- and occupational therapy

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living pre-/post-intervention

MBI:

INT pre: 69.38 (21.20)

CON pre: 63.46 (26.57)

INT post: 83.44 (16.90)

CON post: 68.85 (26.71)

+

Pashang et al. [78]

INT (1 F, 9 M); 53.9 ± 9.73 yrs; right hemisphere; cognitive dysfunction

CON (4 F, 6 M); 57.7 ± 12.16 yrs; right hemisphere; cognitive dysfunction

INT: 11.9 months

CON: 20.3 months

INT (n = 10); visual-cognitive training

CON (n = 10); drug- and physical therapy

INT: 8 wk / 8 sessions; 60 min

Visual-cognitive training program combined with drug- and physical therapy

CON: no details reported

Drug- and physical therapy

V-CPT (number)

Selective attention pre-/post-intervention

V-CPT:

INT pre: 34.40 (28.63)

CON pre: 55.80 (21.25)

INT post: 42.70 (27.67)

CON post: 58.70 (22.07)

-

He et al. [57]

INT (15 F, 17 M); 66.0 ± 6.9 yrs; various; cognitive dysfunction

CON (14 F, 18 M); 67.0 ± 5.9 yrs; various; cognitive dysfunction

< 6 months

ö

INT: 6 wk / 36 sessions; 80 min

20 min of physical therapy

20 min of occupational therapy

20 min of swallowing and speech function training

20 min of eye-movement training

CON: 6 wk / 36 sessions; 80 min

20 min of physical therapy

20 min of occupational therapy

20 min of swallowing and speech function training

20 min of cognitive training

MoCA (score)

Global cognitive function

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living pre-/post-intervention

MoCA:

INT pre: 14.6 (2.6)

CON pre: 14.5 (2.4)

INT post: 17.3 (2.3)

CON post: 16.0 (2.3)

MBI:

INT pre: 42 (18.52)

CON pre: 42 (16.30)

INT post: 65 (13.33)

CON post: 61 (14.07)

++

Kim et al. [79]

INT (6 F, 9 M); 70.7 ± 6.6 yrs; NA; cognitive dysfunction

CON (7 F, 8 M); 71.4 ± 5.2 yrs; NA; cognitive dysfunction

INT: 4.4 (4.0) months

CON: 4.9 (6.3) months

INT (n = 15); visuomotor training

CON (n = 15); occupational therapy

INT: 4 wk / 32 sessions; 30 min

20 sessions of occupational therapy

12 sessions of visuomotor training

CON: 4 wk / 20 sessions; 30 min occupational therapy

MMSE (score)

Global cognitive function

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living

V-CPT (number)

Selective attention

TMT-A (sec)

Visual processing speed

WAIS-DS (score)

Working memory function pre-/post-intervention

MMSE:

INT pre: 19.7 (5.6)

CON pre: 19.3 (5.3)

INT post: 21.1 (5.9)

CON post: 22.7 (4.7)

MBI:

INT pre: 33.2 (13.7)

CON pre: 46.9 (14.4)

INT post: 48.7 (12.9)

CON post: 61.6 (17.0)

V-CPT:

INT pre: 76.7 (31.4)

CON pre: 106.4 (22.6)

INT post: 100.9 (34.0)

CON post: 109.2 (30.9)

TMT-A:

INT pre: 248.8 (227.2)

CON pre: 283.6 (193.6)

INT post: 226.9 (216.1)

CON post: 273.7 (216.2)

WAIS-DS:

INT pre: 3.4 (0.5)

CON pre: 3.5 (0.6)

INT post: 3.3 (0.6)

CON post: 3.7 (0.8)

-

Batool et al. [80]

INT (15 F, 17 M); 55.63 ± 5.90 yrs; NA; visual disorders

CON (13 F, 19 M); 54.38 ± 8.78 yrs; NA; visual disorders

3–6 months

INT (n = 32); visual scanning training

CON (n = 32); functional task training

INT: 4 wk / 24 sessions; 45 min

30-minute functional task training

15 min of visual scanning training

CON: 4 wk / 24 sessions; 45 min

30-minute functional task training

15 min placebo random eye movements

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living pre-/post-intervention

MBI:

INT pre: 18.28 (7.47)

CON pre: 20.31 (7.72)

INT post: 32.66 (12.69)

CON post: 26.25 (10.70)

++

De Luca et al. [56]

INT (6 F, 9 M); 30.93 ± 11.10 yrs; NA; cognitive dysfunction

CON (10 F, 10 M); 39.75 ± 15.43 yrs; NA; cognitive dysfunction

3–6 months

INT (n = 15); visual skills training

CON (n = 20); standard cognitive rehabilitation

INT: 8 wk / 24 sessions; NA

Visual skills-based neurocognitive training combined with standard cognitive rehabilitation

CON: no details reported

Standard cognitive rehabilitation

MMSE (score)

Global cognitive function

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living pre-/post-intervention

MMSE:

INT pre: 21.2 (2.74)

CON pre: 23.0 (4.81)

INT post: 23.7 (2.66)

CON post: 23.0 (4.22)

MBI:

INT pre: 20.0 (38.88)

CON pre: 25.0 (31.48)

INT post: 70.0 (29.63)

CON post: 40.0 (32.5)

-

Kerkhoff et al. [81]

INT (4 F, 8 M); 64 ± 3 yrs; right hemisphere; visual disorders

CON (5 F, 7 M); 64 ± 3 yrs; right hemisphere; visual disorders

INT: 1.0 (0.1) months

CON: 1.2 (0.2) months

INT (n = 6); visual scanning training

CON (n = 6); standard cognitive rehabilitation combined with physical therapy

INT: 4 wk / 20 sessions; 30 min

30-minute functional task training

15 min of visual scanning training

CON: 4 wk / 20 sessions; 30 min

30-minute functional task training

15 min placebo random eye movements

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living pre-/post-intervention

MBI:

INT pre: 11.0 (4.0)

CON pre: 15.0 (5.0)

INT post: 28.0 (5.0)

CON post: 26.0 (8.0)

+

Westerberg et al. [82]

INT (1 F, 8 M); 55 ± 8 yrs; various; cognitive dysfunction

CON (5 F, 4 M); 53.6 ± 8 yrs; various; cognitive dysfunction

INT: 19.3 (6.2) months

CON: 20.8 (6.2) months

INT (n = 9); visual-spatial training

CON (n = 9); no intervention

INT: 5 wk / 25 sessions; 40 min

Software-based visual-spatial cognitive training

CON: -

WAIS-DS (score)

Working memory function

ST (sec)

Selective attention pre-/post-intervention

WAIS-DS:

INT pre: 5.8 (1.0)

CON pre: 5.7 (0.9)

INT post: 7.3 (1.0)

CON post: 5.7 (1.3)

ST:

INT pre: 108.0 (11)

CON pre: 147.0 (54)

INT post: 93.0 (19)

CON post: 124.0 (48)

+

Prokopenko et al. [59]

INT (4 F, 6 M); 59.5 ± 2.5 yrs; various; cognitive dysfunction

CON (1 F, 8 M); 62.55 ± 2.45 yrs; various; cognitive dysfunction

< 6 months

INT (n = 10); visual-spatial training

CON (n = 9); physical therapy

INT: 10 days / 10 sessions; 30–40 min

Software-based visual-spatial cognitive training

CON: no details reported

MMSE (score)

Global cognitive function

MoCA (score)

Global cognitive function pre-/post-intervention

MMSE:

INT pre: 25 (5.93)

CON pre: 25.8 (5.19)

INT post: 28.2 (2.96)

CON post: 26.6 (5.93)

MoCA:

INT pre: 20.6 (4.44)

CON pre: 20.2 (6.66)

INT post: 26.1 (2.96)

CON post: 21.3 (9.63)

-

Yoo et al. [83]

INT (15 F, 8 M); 53.2 ± 8.8 yrs; NA; cognitive dysfunction

CON (14 F, 9 M); 56.3 ± 7.9 yrs; NA; cognitive dysfunction

INT: 11.8 (7.5) months

CON: 10.7 (6.2) months

INT (n = 23); visual-spatial training

CON (n = 23); physical- and occupational therapy

INT: 5 wk / 25 sessions; 30 min

Visuomotor coordination, visual impairment, spatial imagination, memory, focus, attention

CON: no details reported

TMT-A (sec)

Visual processing speed

WAIS-DS (score)

Working memory function pre-/post-intervention

TMT-A:

INT pre: 71.62 (22.31)

CON pre: 68.48 (25.54)

INT post: 65.68 (24.51)

CON post: 67.36 (22.50)

WAIS-DS:

INT pre: 3.62 (1.35)

CON pre: 3.72 (1.23)

INT post: 4.32 (1.32)

CON post: 3.86 (1.41)

+

Kim et al. [84]

INT (8 F, 5 M); 58.9 ± 3.1 yrs; NA; NA

CON (9 F, 4 M); 57.4 ± 3.5 yrs; NA; NA

> 6 months

INT (n = 13); vision control dual-task training

CON (n = 13); unstable supporting plane dual-task balance training

INT: 5 wk / 25 sessions; 30 min

Visual restriction recognition task exercises

CON: 5 wk / 25 sessions; 30 min

Somatosensory control balance exercises

TMT-A (sec)

Visual processing speed

TMT-B (sec)

Cognitive flexibility

ST (sec)

Selective attention pre-/post-intervention

TMT-A:

INT pre: 32.9 (3.0)

CON pre: 32.0 (2.7)

INT post: 30.9 (2.9)

CON post: 29.8 (3.1)

TMT-B:

INT pre: 45.8 (3.0)

CON pre: 45.9 (6.1)

INT post: 42.2 (3.2)

CON post: 41.7 (6.4)

ST:

INT pre: 44.7 (7.9)

CON pre: 45.9 (6.7)

INT post: 40.6 (8.2)

CON post: 42.1 (5.5)

+

Mazer et al. [85]

INT (12 F, 35 M); 65.5 ± 11.4 yrs; NA; NA

CON (15 F, 35 M); 66.5 ± 8.9 yrs; NA; NA

INT: 3.0 (1.7) months

CON: 2.2 (0.9) months

INT (n = 47); visual skills training

CON (n = 50); occupational therapy and cognitive skills training

INT: 5–10 wk / 20 sessions; 30–60 min

Visual skills training targetting visual processing speed, divided- and selective visual attention

CON: 5–10 wk / 20 sessions; 30–60 min

Somatosensory control balance exercises

TMT-A (sec)

Visual processing speed

TMT-B (sec)

Cognitive flexibility pre-/post-intervention

TMT-A:

INT pre: 67.5 (3.9)

CON pre: 67.7 (36.0)

INT post: 49.4 (16.1)

CON post: 57.3 (27.6)

TMT-B:

INT pre: 207.2 (147.0)

CON pre: 207.2 (116.3)

INT post: 139.9 (66.0)

CON post: 161.6 (81.2)

++

Liu et al. [58]

INT (8 F, 22 M); 52.5 ± 7.5 yrs; right hemisphere; motor dysfunction

CON (11 F, 19 M); 53.0 ± 14.5 yrs; right hemisphere; motor dysfunction

INT: 0.6 months

CON: 0.6 months

INT (n = 30); visual feedback training

CON (n = 30); functional electric stimulation combined with conventional therapy

INT: 3 wk / 15 sessions; 20 min

Motor imagery-based brain-computer interface training

CON: 3 wk / 15 sessions; 20 min Functional electric stimulation

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living pre-/post-intervention

MBI:

INT pre: 54.5 (15.41)

CON pre: 52.5 (18.30)

INT post: 80.0 (17.26)

CON post: 62.5 (17.33)

+

Rizkalla [86]

INT (4 F, 5 M); 65.0 ± 9.31 yrs; right hemisphere; cognitive dysfunction

CON (3 F, 6 M); 67.0 ± 7.81 yrs; right hemisphere; cognitive dysfunction

INT: 0.5 (0.1) months

CON: 0.6 (0.1) months

INT (n = 9); visual skills training

CON (n = 9); physical-, occupational- and speech therapy

INT: 4 wk / 20 sessions; 60 min

Visuospatial scanning, visuospatial construction, complex visuospatial-visuomotor activity, mirror neuron training, complex visual skills homework

CON: no details reported

MMSE (score)

Global cognitive function

MoCA (score)

Global cognitive function

TMT-A (sec)

Visual processing speed

TMT-B (sec)

Cognitive flexibility

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living

WAIS-DS (score)

Working memory function pre-/post-intervention

MMSE:

INT pre: 20.67 (2.35)

CON pre: 19.00 (3.64)

INT post: 26.00 (2.45)

CON post: 19.22 (4.87)

MoCA:

INT pre: 17.11 (2.57)

CON pre: 16.11 (3.33)

INT post: 21.78 (2.99)

CON post: 15.89 (6.11)

TMT-A:

INT pre: 145.00 (101.00)

CON pre: 136.11 (100.62)

INT post: 109.11 (90.81)

CON post: 133.78 (101.60)

TMT-B:

INT pre: 257.22 (65.72)

CON pre: 273.67 (64.14)

INT post: 201.56 (77.36)

CON post: 270.89 (66.31)

MBI:

INT pre: 34.44 (18.45)

CON pre: 39.44 (8.08)

INT post: 61.67 (24.75)

CON post: 42.78 (7.95)

WAIS-DS:

INT pre: 5.11 (1.27)

CON pre: 5.44 (1.13)

INT post: 6.67 (1.41)

CON post: 5.67 (1.66)

+

Tramontano et al. [87]

INT (6 F, 9 M); 52.8 ± 9.2 yrs; various; cognitive dysfunction

CON (7 F, 8 M); 61.7 ± 15.2 yrs; various; cognitive dysfunction

< 6 months

INT (n = 15); visual-spatial training

CON (n = 15); balance training combined with conventional rehabilitation

INT: 4 wk / 20 sessions; 60 min

40 min of conventional rehabilitation

20 min of visual-spatial, specular vision, and target identification training

CON: 4 wk / 20 sessions; 60 min

40 min of conventional rehabilitation

20 min of balance training

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living pre-/post-intervention

MBI:

INT pre: 70.9 (18.71)

CON pre: 69.1 (24.42)

INT post: 92.4 (11.12)

CON post: 70.1 (21.36)

+

Moon et al. [88]

INT (10 F, 10 M); 54.00 ± 14.63 yrs; NA; cognitive dysfunction

CON (11 F, 9 M); 56.95 ± 12.86 yrs; NA; cognitive dysfunction

INT: 1.0 (0.1) months

CON: 1.1 (0.1) months

INT (n = 18); eye-tracking visual cognitive training

CON (n = 21); conventional cognitive training

INT: 6 wk / 30 sessions; 30 min

Eye-tracking visual attention and processing training

CON: 6 wk / 30 sessions; 30 min

Computerized cognitive rehabilitation

MMSE (score)

Global cognitive function

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living

V-CPT (number)

Selective attention pre-/post-intervention

MMSE:

INT pre: 21.55 (5.68)

CON pre: 21.50 (4.13)

INT post: 25.70 (3.37)

CON post: 25.10 (3.59)

MBI:

INT pre: 46.25 (17.80)

CON pre: 59.00 (23.86)

INT post: 62.75 (18.33)

CON post: 76.05 (20.12)

V-CPT:

INT pre: 45.30 (20.16)

CON pre: 39.85 (15.57)

INT post: 53.00 (21.94)

CON post: 42.90 (15.35)

-

Van Wyk [89]

INT (6 F, 6 M); 19–74 yrs; NA; visual disorders

CON (6 F, 6 M); 19–74 yrs; NA; visual disorders

NA

INT (n = 12); eye movement training

CON (n = 12); task-specific activities

INT: 4 wk / 20 sessions; 45 min

Saccadic eye movement training and visual scanning with task-specific activities

CON: 4 wk / 20 sessions; 45 min

Task-specific activities

MMSE (score)

Global cognitive function

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living pre-/post-intervention

MMSE:

INT pre: 21.0 (3.95)

CON pre: 20.7 (5.12)

INT post: 25.4 (2.02)

CON post: 24.1 (3.06)

MBI:

INT pre: 42.9 (18.40)

CON pre: 46.3 (18.11)

INT post: 85.4 (16.44)

CON post: 65.4 (27.84)

+

Zhu et al. [90]

INT (6 F, 10 M); 57.75 ± 16.75 yrs; various; motor dysfunction

CON (7 F, 8 M); 56.89 ± 17.93 yrs; various; motor dysfunction

< 3 months

INT (n = 16); visual feedback training

CON (n = 15); conventional rehabilitation

INT: 8 wk / 48 sessions; 210–270 min

30-minute visual feedback training

180–240 min of conventional rehabilitation

CON: 8 wk / 48 sessions; 180–240 min

180–240 min conventional rehabilitation, Bobath and Brunnstrom approaches, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation techniques, physical exercise, daily activities, physical- and occupational therapy

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living pre-/post-intervention

MBI:

INT pre: 42.75 (11.09)

CON pre: 43.78 (12.11)

INT post: 72.33 (11.82)

CON post: 63.75 (10.45)

+

Zhang et al. [91]

INT (6 F, 14 M); 66.90 ± 4.42 yrs; NA; NA

CON (5 F, 15 M); 67.55 ± 4.94 yrs; NA; NA

INT: 2.2 (0.3) months

CON: 2.3 (0.3) months

INT (n = 20); visual feedback training

CON (n = 20); balance training

INT: 3 wk / 15 sessions; 40 min

20 min of visual feedback training

20 min of balance training

CON: 3 wk / 15 sessions; 20 min

20 min of balance training

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living pre-/post-intervention

MBI:

INT pre: 29.50 (8.87)

CON pre: 30.00 (8.89)

INT post: 61.75 (10.3)

CON post: 49.50 (10.99)

+

Wang et al. [92]

INT (1 F, 14 M); 56.73 ± 10.73 yrs; NA; motor dysfunction

CON (14 M); 59.43 ± 9.75 yrs; NA; motor dysfunction

INT: 4.0 (1.2) months

CON: 4.7 (1.5) months

INT (n = 15); visuomotor training

CON (n = 14); health education combined with conventional rehabilitation

INT: 4 wk / 20 sessions; 210 min

30-minute visuomotor training

180 min of conventional rehabilitation

CON: 4 wk / 20 sessions; 210 min

30-minute health education

180 min of conventional rehabilitation

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living pre-/post-intervention

MBI:

INT pre: 57.73 (16.24)

CON pre: 63.82 (16.25)

INT post: 78.64 (13.73)

CON post: 71.71 (17.94)

++

Braun et al. [93]

INT (13 F, 5 M); 77.7 ± 7.4 yrs; NA; NA

CON (9 F, 9 M); 77.9 ± 7.4 yrs; NA; NA

INT: 1.4 (0.6) months

CON: 1.1 (0.8) months

INT (n = 18); visuomotor training

CON (n = 18); difficult task homework combined with conventional rehabilitation

INT: 6 wk; no details reported

Visuomotor training combined with multi-professional rehabilitation

CON: 6 wk; no details reported

Multi-professional rehabilitation

MBI (score)

Activities of daily living pre-/post-intervention

MBI:

INT pre: 11.17 (4.1)

CON pre: 12.22 (5.4)

INT post: 15.00 (4.5)

CON post: 14.94 (5.5)

+

Luukkainen-Markkula et al. [94]

INT (4 F, 2 M); 57.8 ± 11.8 yrs; right hemisphere; motor dysfunction

CON (3 F, 3 M); 59.5 ± 8.4 yrs; right hemisphere; motor dysfunction

INT: 3.2 (2.1) months

CON: 2.7 (2.2) months

INT (n = 6); visual scanning training

CON (n = 6); arm activation training combined with conventional rehabilitation

INT: 8 wk / 32 sessions; 90 min

20 min of visual scanning training

30 min of physical therapy

40 min of occupational therapy

CON: 8 wk / 32 sessions; 90 min

45 min of arm activation training

25 min of physical therapy

20 min of occupational therapy

WAIS-DS (score)

Working memory function pre-/post-intervention

WAIS-DS:

INT pre: 9.5 (3.7)

CON pre: 8.4 (5.5)

INT post: 12.0 (3.9)

CON post: 10.6 (5.1)

+