Table 1 Device design and functionality

Foot-sole stimulation system

(Hao et al., 2013) [20]

Foot-sole stimulation

Passive

N.A.

Applies relatively high-pressure stimuli to the foot soles with a programmable waveform and adjustable surface area over which the pressure is applied.

Dual-drive foot-sole stimulator

(Zhang et al., 2019) [21]

Foot-sole stimulation

Passive

N.A.

Applies controlled dynamic pressure waveform-type stimuli to the foot soles that mimic those experienced when walking.

The Korvit boot system

(Kremneva et al., 2012) [22]

(Labriffe et al., 2017) [23]

(Jeanvoine et al., 2022) [24]

Foot-sole stimulation

Passive

Foam blocks

Generates well-controlled, reproducible mechanical stimulation of the plantar surface of the foot by the application of pneumatic pressure on the relevant support zones, in a pattern which reproduces the pressures generated during gait.

Foot pedal manipulandum

(Trinastic et al., 2010) [25]

Ankle dorsiflexion/

plantarflexion

Active

Foam

Enables twenty degrees of rotation at the ankle, from ten degrees of plantarflexion to ten degrees of dorsiflexion.

Plantar flexion force measure apparatus

(Noble et al., 2014) [26]

Ankle dorsiflexion/

plantarflexion

Active

A memory foam pillow within the head coil and a Velcro strap around hips and the distal end of legs

Allows participant to produce a plantar flexion exertion against resistance and measure the force of plantar flexion exertions.

Bra.Di.P.O.

(Belforte et al., 2010) [27]

(Belforte et al., 2012) [28]

Ankle dorsiflexion/

plantarflexion

Both passive and active

N.A.

Enables passive foot dorsiflexion and plantarflexion movements, as well as active movements according to a pre-set series of parameters (force, amplitude).

Bipedal device

(Doolittle et al., 2021) [29]

Lower extremity multi-joint movement

Active

Hook and loop straps to secure the participant’s feet

Enables alternating unilateral and bilateral plantarflexion and dorsiflexion.

Pedaling device

(Mehta et al., 2009) [31]

(Mehta et al., 2012) [32]

(Promjunyakul et al., 2015) [33]

Lower extremity multi-joint movement

Active

A beaded vacuum pillow and a “brace” around the head. A chinstrap and additional foam padding was added as needed

Enables forward or backward pedaling against a frictional load with rates up to 80 RPM.

Torque-measuring apparatus

(Newton et al., 2008) [30]

Lower extremity multi-joint movement

Active

N.A.

Enables to measure torques generated at the ankle, knee and hip joints simultaneously by using 6-axis non-magnetic load cell, as well as providing visual feedback of the torque at the relevant joint to the subject.

Pseudogait-MRCD

(Martínez et al., 2014) [34]

(Martínez et al., 2016) [35]

Lower extremity multi-joint movement

Active

A vacuum pillow (Siemens Cushion Head 4,765,454) and elastic Velcro straps placed over the hips and thighs

Allows participant to perform voluntary step-like movements and avoid hip movements while lying in the supine position.

Cylindrical treadmill device

(Toyomura et al., 2018) [36]

Lower extremity multi-joint movement

Active

Several belts and small cushions inserted into the space between the headset and head coil

Allows participant to turn the cylindrical treadmill from the outside to perform stepping movements.

MARCOS

(Hollnagel et al., 2011) [37]

(Hollnagel et al., 2013) [38]

(Jaeger et al., 2014) [39]

(Jaeger et al., 2015) [40]

(Jaeger et al., 2016) [41]

Lower extremity multi-joint movement and extra foot-sole stimulation

Both passive and active

Shoulder belts, a vacuum pillow placed at the back, a rigid hip fixation, and a head bowl in combination with the Crania fixation

Enables programmable, highly repetitive periodic active or passive leg movements comprised of hip, knee, and ankle joint displacements as well as GRF applied to foot soles.

LOMS

(Takahiro et al., 2011) [42]

(Ikeda et al., 2012) [43]

(Takahiro et al., 2013) [44]

(Ikeda et al., 2015) [45]

Lower extremity multi-joint movement and extra foot-sole stimulation

Both passive and active

N.A.

Enables to control joint angle trajectory and joint togue at each joint independently enables various active and passive movements of the user’s lower extremities and has foot stimulating parts at its two soles to simulate floor reactive force.